Mandarin Chinese

This reference grammar provides, for the first time, a description of the grammar of Mandarin Chinese, the official spoken language of China and Taiwan, in functional terms, focusing on the role and meanings of word-level and sentence-level structures in actual conversations.

Charles N. Li is Professor of Linguistics and Chairperson, Linguistics Department, University of California, Santa Barbara. Sandra A. Thompson is Professor of Linguistics, University of California, Santa Barbara.

Preface to the Paperback Edition
Preface
Conventiom Used in Examples
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
l. l The Chinese Language Family
1.2 The Phonology of Mandarin
1.2.1 Initials
1.2.2 Finals
1.2.3 Tones
1.2.4 Phonetic Effects of the Retroflex Suffix
2 Typological Description
2.1 The Structural Complexity of Words: Mandarin as
an Isolating Language
2.1.1 Morphemes Occurring with Nouns
2. l. 2 Morphemes Occurring with Verbs
2.2 Monosyllabicity: The Number of Syllables per Word
2.3 Topic Prominence
2.4 Word Order
2.4.1 The Word Order Typology
2.4.2 Word Order in Mandarin
3 Word Structure 
3.1 Morphological Processes 
3. 1. 1 Reduplication 
3.1.2 Affixation 
3.2 Compounds 
3.2.1 The Meaning of Compounds 
3.2.2 Nominal Compounds 
3.2.3 Verbal Compounds 
3.2.4 Subject-Predicate Compounds 
3.2.5 Verb-Object Compounds 
3.2.6 Antonymous Adjectives Forming Nominal Compounds 
3.2.7 Minor Types of Compounds 
4 Simple Declarative Sentences 
4.1 Topic and Subject 
4.1.1 Characterization of Topic 
4.1.2 Characterization of Subject 
4.1.3 Comparison of Topic and Subject 
4.1.4 Double-Subject Sentences 
4.1.5 Comparison with Chao's Analysis 
4.1.6 Time and Locative Phrases 
4.1.7 Further Examples 
4.1.8 Topic as a Discourse Element 
4.1. 9 Topic and Coreference in Discourse 
4.2 The Noun Phrase 
4.2.1 Classifier Phrases/Measure Phrases 
4.2.2 Associative Phrases 
4.2.3 Modifying Phrases 
4.2.4 The Order of Elements in a Noun Phrase 
4.2.5 Definiteness and Referentiality 
4.2.6 Pronouns 
4.2.7 Reflexives 
4. 3 The Verb Phrase 
4.3.1 Types of Verb Phrases 
5 Auxiliary Verbs
5.1 Auxiliary Verb versus Verb
5.2 Auxiliary Verb versus Adverb
5.3 List of Auxiliary Verbs
6 Aspect
6.1 The Perfective Aspect
6.1.1 Where to Use -le: A Bounded Event
6.1.2 Where Not to Use -le
6.1.3 -le in Imperatives
6.1.4 -le Does Not Mean Past Tense
6.1.5 -le Does Not Mean Completion
6.1.6 Summary
6.2 The Durative Aspect
6.2.1 Semantic Types of Verbs and the Durative Aspect
Markers -me and zai
6.2.2 Complex Sentences with the Durative Aspect
Marker -zhe
6.3 The Experiential Aspect
6.4 The Delimitative Aspect
6.5 Summary
7 Sentence-Final Particles
7.1 le
7. 1. 1 The Communicative Function of le
7 .1.2 Where Not to Use le
7. l. 3 Perfective -le versus CRS le
7.2 ne
7.3 ba
7.4 ou
7.5 a/ya
7.6 Conclusion
8 Adverbs 
8. 1 Movable Adverbs 
8.1.1 Movable Adverbs of Time 
8. l. 2 Movable Adverbs of Attitude 
8.2 Nonmovable Adverbs 
8.2.1 Manner Adverbs 
8.2.2 Nonmanner Adverbs 
8.3 Negation and Adverbs 
8.3.1 Negation and Movable Adverbs 
8.3.2 Negation and Nonmovable Adverbs 
8.4 Adverbs and the bii Construction 
8.5 Quantity Adverbial Phrases 
9 Coverbs/Prepositions 
9. l The Function of Coverbs 
9. l. 1 Occurrence with Aspect Markers 
9.1.2 Coverbs That Can Function as Verbs 
9. 2 Representative List of Co verbs 
10 Indirect Objects and Benefactives 
10. 1 gei Obligatory 
10.2 gei Optional 
10.3 gei Forbidden 
10.4 Apparent Indirect Objects 
10.5 Explanation for the Indirect Object Facts 
10.6 Benefactive Noun Phrases, and Preverbal Indirect Object 
10.7 Other Functions of gei 
11 Locative and Directional Phrases 
11. l Locative Phrases 
11. l. l The Structure of Locative Phrases 
11.1.2 The Position of the Locative Phrase in the Sentence 
11.2 Directional Phrases with dao 'to' 
12 Negation 
12.1 The Position and Scope of Negative Particles 
12.2 The Functions of bu and mei(you) 
12.2. 1 Variation in the Meaning of Sentences with bu 
12.2.2 Types of Verb Phrases 
12.2.3 Resultative Verb Compounds 
12.3 mei(you) Is Not a Past Tense Negative Particle 
12.4 Negation and Aspect 
12.5 Negating Some Element other than a Simple Verb Phrase 
12.6 Summary 
13 Verb Copying 
13.1 Where Verb Copying Occurs 
13.2 Grammatical Properties of the Verb-Copying Construction 
14 The Imperative 
15 The bii Construction 
15.1 The bd Noun Phrase 
15.2 Disposal 
15.3 bii Sentences without a Subject 
15.4 bii . .. gei 
15.5 When to Use the bii Construction 
16 The bei Construction 
16.1 Use and Function 
16.1.1 Adversity 
16. l. 2 Disposal 
16.2 Structural Properties
16.2.1 Indirect Object Adversely Affected
16.2.2 The bei Noun Phrase Can Be Inanimate
16.3 bii and bei
16.4 Variant Forms
17 Presentative Sentences 
17.1 Existential and Positional Verbs 
17.2 Verbs of Motion 
18 Questions 
18.1 The Four Types of Questions 
18.2 Question-Word Questions 
18.2. 1 Question Words in Questions 
18.2.2 Question Words as Indefinite Pronouns 
18.3 Disjunctive Questions 
18.3. I Questions with Constituents Connected by haishi 
18.3.2 A-not-A Questions 
18.4 Tag Questions 
18.5 Particle Questions 
18.6 Differences between A-Not-A Questions and
Particle Questions 
18.7 Questions Serving as Subjects or Direct Objects of a Verb 
18.8 Answers to Questions 
19 Comparison 
19.1 Comparative Constructions 
19.1.1 Dimension 
19.1.2 Subject/Topic and the Standard
of Comparison 
19.2 Superlatives 
20 Nominalization 
20.1 A Nominalization Functioning as a Noun Phrase 
20.2 Nominalizations Modifying a Head Noun 
20.2.1 Relative Clause Constructions 
20.2.2 A Nominalization Serving as the Complement
to an Abstract Head Noun 
20.3 The shi . . . de Construction 
21 Serial Verb Constructions
21. I Two or More Separate Events
21.2 One Verb Phrase/Clause Is the Subject or Direct Object
of Another
21.2. I The Second Verb Phrase/Clause Is the Direct Object
21.2.2 The First Verb Phrase/Clause Is the Subject of the
Second Verb 
21.2.3 The Clause That Is a Subject or Direct Object
is a Question
21.3 Pivotal Constructions
21.4 Descriptive Clauses
21.4.1 Realis Descriptive Clauses
21.4.2 lrrealis Descriptive Clauses
21.5 Summary
22 The Complex Stative Construction
22. I Inferred meanings
22. I . I Manner Inferred
22.1.2 Extent Inferred
22. I. 3 Either Manner or Extent Inferred
22.2 General Structural Properties
23 Sentence Linking
23. I Forward Linking
23. I. I Forward Linking with a Linking Element
23. I. 2 Forward Linking without a Linking Element
23. I. 3 The Semantics of Conditionals
23.2 Backward Linking
23.2.1 Adverbial Backward-Linking Elements in
Clause-Initial Position
23.2.2 Nonmovable Adverbs as BackwardLinking
Elements
24 Pronouns in Discourse
24.1 Zero Pronouns
24.2 Pronouns
24.3 Syntactic Constraints on Zero Pronouns
References
Index